Definition and Overview about Bystander
Effect
The bystander effect or Genovese
syndrome is a social psychological phenomenon
that refers to cases where individuals do not offer any means of help in an
emergency situation to the victim when other people are present. The
probability of help has often appeared to be inversely related to the number of
bystanders; in other words, the greater the number of bystanders, the less
likely it is that any one of them will help. The mere presence of other
bystanders greatly decreases intervention. In general, this is believed to
happen because as the number of bystanders increases, any given bystander is less
likely to notice the situation, interpret the incident as a problem, and less
likely to assume responsibility for taking action. (www.wikipedia.com)
The bystander effect occurs when the presence of others hinders an
individual from intervening in an emergency situation. Social psychologists
Bibb Latané and John Darley popularized the concept following the infamous 1964
Kitty Genovese murder in Kew Gardens, New York. Genovese was stabbed to death
outside her apartment three times, while bystanders who reportedly observed the
crime did not step in to assist or call the police. Latane and Darley
attributed the bystander effect to the diffusion of responsibility (onlookers
are more likely to intervene if there are few or no other witnesses) and social
influence (individuals in a group monitor the behavior of those around them to
determine how to act). In Genovese's case, each onlooker concluded from their neighbors'
inaction that their own help was not needed. (www.psychologytoday.com)
Why Don’t We Help? Less Is More, at
Least When It Comes to Bystanders (www.psychologytoday.com Published on November 4, 2009 by Melissa
Burkley, Ph.D. in The Social Thinker)
On October 24th, 2009, as many as 20 witnesses
watched as a 15 year old girl was brutally assaulted and raped outside a
homecoming dance in Richmond, CA. The viciousness of the attack was shocking,
but what was even more shocking was the fact that so many people witnessed the
attack and yet failed to intervene or call police. As one of the police
officers involved in the case states, "what makes it even more disturbing
is the presence of others. People came by, saw what was happening and failed to
report it." Some of the bystanders reportedly even laughed and took photos
of the assault with their cell phones.
How could people just stand by and watch something this
horrible happen to a young, innocent girl? Some have suggested that the
eyewitnesses' failure to report the incident likely resulted from a concern
over being labeled as a snitch. Although this is possible, social psychological
research on the bystander effect suggests a different cause - there were too
many eyewitnesses present. The bystander effect refers to the fact that people
are less likely to offer help when they are in a group than when they are
alone. Research on this effect was inspired by a real-world account that seems
hauntingly similar to the recent event in Richmond.
In 1964, 28 year old Kitty Genovese was raped and stabbed to
death in front of her apartment complex. The
attack lasted over 30 minutes and was witnessed by several dozen people who
failed to report the incident. Some failed to realize that an actual crime was
going on, claiming they thought it was a "lover's quarrel", whereas
others realized they were witnessing a crime, but failed to report it because
they assumed that someone else had already called the police. A similar
incident took place in New Bedford, MA, in 1983 when several men raped a woman
on a pool table in front of several witnesses in a bar. The 1988 film "The
Accused" depicted this incident and Jodie Foster went on to earn an
Academy Award for her performance as the rape victim. More recently, a 22 year
old college student died from water intoxication in 2005 when four of his
fellow fraternity brothers failed to intervene during a deadly hazing incident.
To determine the underlying reasons why these witnesses
failed to help, John Darley and Bibb Latane conducted a series of lab
experiments to examine how the presence of others influences people's helping
behavior in an emergency situation. The results of these studies suggest there
are two clear reasons why the eyewitnesses in the Richmond case may have failed
to help.
1.
Pluralistic Ignorance
One of the first steps in anyone's decision to help another
is the recognition that someone is actually in need of help. To do this, the
bystander must realize that they are witnessing an emergency situation and that
a victim is in need of assistance. Consequently, a major reason why
eyewitnesses fail to intervene is that they do not even realize they are
witnessing a crime. When we are in an ambiguous situation and we are not sure
whether there is an emergency or not, we often look to others to see how they
are reacting. We assume that others may know something that we don't, so we
gauge their reactions before we decide how we will respond. If those around us
are acting as if it is an emergency, then we will treat it like an emergency
and act accordingly. But if those around us are acting calm, then we may fail
to recognize the immediacy of the situation and therefore fail to intervene.
For example, imagine you are at the community pool and you
see a child splashing wildly in the water. Your first instinct would probably
be to look around you and see how others are responding. If others appear
shocked and are yelling for help, you may conclude that the child is drowning
and dive in to help. But, if those around you are ignoring the child or
laughing, you may conclude that they child is just playing around. To avoid
looking foolish, you would probably just continue watching and would fail to
dive in and help. This seems like a reasonable approach and for the most part,
it prevents us from making a fool out of ourselves. But the problem is that
this tendency to look to others in order to determine how to respond can be
biased by a phenomenon known as pluralistic ignorance. Pluralistic ignorance
describes a situation where a majority of group members privately believe one
thing, but assume (incorrectly) that most others believe the opposite.
For example, pluralistic ignorance explains why my
undergraduate students often fail to ask questions in class. Let's say that one
of my students is confused about the class material I just covered and wants to
ask me to clarify. Before raising her hand, she will likely look around to room
to see if any of her fellow students seem confused or have their hand up as
well. If no one else looks puzzled, she will conclude that she is the only one
in the room that didn't get the material. To avoid looking stupid, she may
choose to keep her hand down and not ask me her question. But as a teacher, I
have discovered that if one student is unsure about the material, odds are most
of the students are. So in this situation, my class is suffering from
pluralistic ignorance because each one assumes they are the only one confused,
when in fact all the students are confused and all of them are incorrectly
concluding that they are the only one. The same process can occur when we
witness an ambiguous emergency situation. All the bystanders may look to each
other to determine if they are witnessing a crime, and if no one reacts, then
everyone will wrongly conclude that this is not an emergency and no one will
step up and help. The fact that several of the eyewitnesses in the Richmond
case were laughing and taking photos with their cell phones suggests that they
simply failed to realize they were witnessing a brutal rape and instead may
have thought it was a prank.
In one of Darley and Latane's classic studies, they tried to
recreate this phenomenon in the lab. For their study, they had participants
complete a questionnaire and after a few minutes, smoke started to pour into
the room underneath a door in the back. Some participants were the only one in
the room when this happened, but for others, there were two other students
completing questionnaires in the room as well. In actuality, these two
"students" were working for the researchers and were instructed to
keep calm not matter what happens. The key question in this study was would the
participant notice the smoke and go get help or would they simply write it off
as nothing concerning and continue working on their questionnaire. The result
showed that when the participant was alone, 75% of them left to report the
smoke. But when there were two other people in the room who remained calm, only
10% left to get help. In some cases, the smoke got so thick the participant could
barely read the questionnaire in front of them! Yet, as long as their fellow
bystanders remained in calm, they did as well. Thus, when we are alone, we are
more likely to assume an ambiguous situation represents and emergency and act
accordingly. When we are in the presence of other bystanders, we are likely to
look to those others for guidance and if they are not responding or are
laughing or are taking photos of the event, we will mistakenly conclude it is
not an emergency and will fail to help.
2.
Diffusion of Responsibility
Even if people recognize that they are witnessing a crime,
they may still fail to intervene if they do not take personal responsibility
for helping the victim. The problem is that the more bystanders there are, the
less responsible each individual feels. When you are the only eyewitness
present, 100% of the responsibility for providing help rests on your shoulders.
But if there are five eyewitnesses, only 20% of the responsibility is yours.
The responsibility becomes defused or dispersed among the group members. In
these situations, people may assume that someone else will help or that someone
else is better qualified to provide assistance. But if everyone assumes this,
then no one will intervene. Darley and Latane also investigate this phenomenon
in a lab study.
Specifically, they had participants take part in a group
discussion over an intercom system. Some participants talked one-on-one over
the intercom with another person and some talked over the intercom with a group
of 5 other people. During the discussion, one of the voices on the intercom
stated they were having a seizure and called out for help. In actuality, this
was a prerecorded voice. For those who were led to believe they were the only
person who overheard the seizure, 85% sought help. But for those who thought
they were one of six people who overheard the seizure, only 31% sought help. So
even when we are aware that an emergency is occurring, we are still less likely to help if other bystanders are present. So
what about these people who overheard the seizure and didn't help? Were they
just indifferent? Follow up interviews at the end of the study suggested that
they were in fact concerned. Most mentioned overhearing the seizure, many had
trembling hands and were clearly shaken from the experience and several
inquired as to whether the victim finally received help. This tells us that
they were not indifferent or heartless; they were concerned but simply didn't
feel responsible enough to do anything about it. Interestingly, the researchers
also asked if the participants thought that the presence of other bystanders
affected their decision to get help or not and the most said it did not. So
even though the presence of others clearly affects our helping behavior, we are unaware of this influence.we are still less likely to help if other bystanders are present.
So what about these people who overheard the seizure and didn't help? Were they
just indifferent? Follow up interviews at the end of the study suggested that
they were in fact concerned. Most mentioned overhearing the seizure, many had
trembling hands and were clearly shaken from the experience and several
inquired as to whether the victim finally received help. This tells us that
they were not indifferent or heartless; they were concerned but simply didn't
feel responsible enough to do anything about it. Interestingly, the researchers
also asked if the participants thought that the presence of other bystanders
affected their decision to get help or not and the most said it did not. So
even though the presence of others clearly affects our helping behavior, we are unaware of this influence.
So once again, how can we use the knowledge garnered from
this study to our advantage? First, if you find yourself in an emergency
situation with several fellow bystanders, realize that your first instinct (and
the first instinct of those around you) will be to deny responsibility for
helping the victim. By simply being aware of the diffusion of responsibility
process, it may snap you out of the biased way of thinking and cause
you to realize that you and everyone present is each 100% responsible for
helping the victim. Second, if you find yourself in need of help, it is up to
you to actively make one of your eyewitnesses feel personally responsible for
your well-being. When we are in need of help and there is a crowd watching, we
often plead for help to anyone that is listening, thinking that at least one
person will step up to intervene. But self-defense instructors advise that you
instead pick one person out of the crowd, look them dead in the eye, and tell
that one person you need help. By pleading to a specific individual, you
suddenly make that person feel completely responsible for your safety and this
increases the odds that they will help. The same technique can be used if you
are trying to get several others to help you assist a victim. Point to one
person and tell them to go get help; point to another and tell them to call
911. Giving specific instructions to specific people counteracts the diffusion
of responsibility process.
3. Conclusion
We typically think that the more people who witness a crime,
the more people there will be to help the victim, but these classic social
psychology experiments call this assumption into question. By making yourself
and others aware of the factors that lead to such bystander apathy, we can
hopefully make events like those that occurred in Richmond, CA and Bedford, MA
a thing of the past.
About The Writer:
Melissa Burkley, Ph.D., is currently an assistant professor of
social psychology at Oklahoma State University. She earned her doctoral degree
from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 2006. She conducts
research in the area of social cognition, particularly with a focus on
stereotypes and prejudice. Her recent work has examined what it is like to be
the member of a stereotyped group. In her free time, she enjoys traveling,
photography, writing and spending lazy Sunday afternoons with her husband and
puppy.